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Using a corpus of millions of digitized books, we document the presence and trajectory over time of stereotypical gender associations in the written English language from 1800 to 2000. We employ the novel methodology of word embeddings to quantify male gender bias: the tendency to associate a domain with the male gender. We measure male gender bias in four stereotypically gendered domains: career, family, science, and arts. We found that stereotypical gender associations in language have decreased over time but still remain, with career and science terms demonstrating positive male gender bias and family and arts terms demonstrating negative male gender bias. We also seek evidence of changing associations corresponding to the second shift and find partial support. Traditional gender ideology is latent within the text of published English-language books, yet the magnitude of traditionally gendered associations appears to be decreasing over time.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Jason J. Jones: Department of Sociology and Institute for Advanced Computational Science, Stony Brook University
E-mail: Jason.J.Jones@stonybrook.edu

Mohammad Ruhul Amin: Department of Computer Science, Stony Brook University
E-mail: moamin@cs.stonybrook.edu

Jessica Kim: Department of Sociology, Stony Brook University
E-mail: jessica.a.kim@stonybrook.edu

Steven Skiena: Department of Computer Science, Stony Brook University
E-mail: skiena@cs.stonybrook.edu

Acknowledgements: This material is based upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under grants IIS-1546113 and IIS-1927227. The authors would like to thank Stony Brook Research Computing and Cyberinfrastructure as well as the Institute for Advanced Computational Science at Stony Brook University for access to the highperformance SeaWulf computing system, which was made possible by a $1.4 million National Science Foundation grant (#1531492).

Citation: Jones, Jason J., Mohammad Ruhul Amin, Jessica Kim, and Steven Skiena. 2019. “Stereotypical Gender Associations in Language Have Decreased Over Time.” Sociological Science 7: 1-35.
Received: August 13, 2019
Accepted: October 31, 2019
Editors: Jesper Sørensen, Sarah Soule
DOI: 10.15195/v7.a1

Which Mothers Pay a Higher Price? Education Differences in Motherhood Wage Penalties by Parity and Fertility Timing

By Parker Webservices on December 19, 2019 in Articles

Catherine Doren

Sociological Science December 19, 2019
10.15195/v6.a26

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Upon becoming mothers, women often experience a wage decline—a “motherhood wage penalty.” Recent scholarship suggests the penalty’s magnitude differs by educational attainment. Yet education is also predictive of when women have children and how many they have, which can affect the wage penalty’s size too. Using fixed-effects models and data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, I estimate heterogeneous effects of motherhood by parity and by age at births, considering how these relationships differ by education. For college graduates, first births were associated with a small wage penalty overall, but the penalty was larger for earlier first births and declined with higher ages at first birth. Women who delayed fertility until their mid-30s reaped a premium. Second and third births were associated with wage penalties. Less educated women instead faced a wage penalty at all births and delaying fertility did not minimize the penalty.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Catherine Doren: Office of Population Research and Center for Research on Child Wellbeing, Princeton University
E-mail: cdoren@princeton.edu

Acknowledgements: This research was supported by a core grant to the Center for Demography and Ecology at the University of Wisconsin-Madison (P2C HD047873) and a training grant (T32 HD07014) awarded to the Center for Demography and Ecology by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health & Human Development. Thanks to Christine Schwartz, Myra Marx Ferree, Eric Grodsky, Sasha Killewald, Kathy Lin, Sara McLanahan, Christine Percheski, and Tim Smeeding for helpful feedback on past drafts of this article.

Citation: Doren, Catherine. 2019. “Which Mothers Pay a Higher Price? Education Differences in Motherhood Wage Penalties by Parity and Fertility Timing.” Sociological Science 6: 684-709.
Received: October 23, 2019
Accepted: November 18, 2019
Editors: Jesper Sørensen, Sarah Soule
DOI: 10.15195/v6.a26

Gender Typicality and Academic Achievement among American High School Students

By Parker Webservices on December 12, 2019 in Articles

Jill E. Yavorsky, Claudia Buchmann

Sociological Science December 12, 2019
10.15195/v6.a25

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This study is the first to use nationally representative data to examine whether differences in gender-typical behaviors among adolescents are associated with high school academic performance and whether such associations vary by race or socioeconomic status. Using wave I data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health and linked academic transcript data from the Adolescent Health and Academic Achievement study, we find that boys who report moderate levels of gender atypicality earn the highest grade point averages (GPAs), but few boys score in this range. As gender typicality increases, boys’ GPAs decline steeply. In contrast, girls who practice moderate levels of gender typicality earn slightly higher GPAs than other girls. These patterns generally hold across race and socioeconomic status groups.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Jill E. Yavorsky: Department of Sociology, University of North Carolina Charlotte
E-mail: jyavorsk@uncc.edu

Claudia Buchmann: Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University
E-mail: buchmann.4@osu.edu

Acknowledgements: This research uses data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), a program project directed by Kathleen Mullan Harris and designed by J. Richard Udry, Peter S. Bearman, and Kathleen Mullan Harris at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and funded by grant P01-HD31921 from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, with cooperative funding from 23 other federal agencies and foundations. Information on how to obtain the Add Health data files is available on the Add Health website (http://www.cpc.unc.edu/addhealth). No direct support was received from grant P01-HD31921 for this analysis. This research also uses data from the Adolescent Health and Academic Achievement study, which was funded by a grant (R01 HD040428-02, Chandra Muller, PI) from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development and a grant (REC-0126167, Chandra Muller, PI, and Pedro Reyes, Co-PI) from the National Science Foundation. This research was also supported by grant 5 R24 HD042849, Population Research Center, awarded to the Population Research Center at The University of Texas at Austin by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Health and Child Development. Opinions reflect those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the granting agencies. We thank the reviewers and editor for their helpful comments. We also are grateful to Yue Qian, Paula England, Tom DiPrete, and participants in the Seminar Series at the Center for the Study of Wealth and Inequality at Columbia University and participants in the University of Michigan Department of Sociology Seminar Series.

Citation: Yavorsky, Jill E., and Claudia Buchmann. 2019. “Gender Typicality and Academic Achievement among American High School Students.” Sociological Science 6: 661-683.
Received: October 8, 2019
Accepted: November 13, 2019
Editors: Jesper Sørensen, Kim Weeden
DOI: 10.15195/v6.a25

Robust Discourse and the Politics of Legitimacy: Framing International Intervention in the Syrian Civil War, 2011–2016

By Parker Webservices on November 25, 2019 in Articles

Eric W. Schoon, Scott W. Duxbury

Sociological Science, November 25, 2019
10.15195/v6.a24

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Legitimacy is widely invoked as a master frame in international political discourse. During episodes of contention, this frame is used by opposing sides to advance competing interpretations of the same social problems. Through an analysis of elite political discourses surrounding international intervention in the Syrian Civil War, we examine what distinguishes the effectiveness of actors’ framing efforts when they use a shared frame to advance conflicting agendas. We show how features of the objects (i.e., what or who) being framed shape the resonance and stability of the framing. Moreover, we show how framing objects that can be coherently interpreted in multiple ways facilitate the cultivation of discourses that are consistent despite changing social conditions and the evolution of framers’ goals. We refer to this as robust discourse and elaborate on the implications of this concept.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Eric W. Schoon: Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University
E-mail: schoon.1@osu.edu

Scott W. Duxbury: Department of Sociology, The Ohio State University
E-mail: duxbury.5@osu.edu

Acknowledgements: The authors would like to thank Colin Beck, Robert Braun, Nicole Fox, Steve Lopez, Aliza Luft, Andrew Martin, Dana Moss, Corey Pech, Vinnie Roscigno, and Mike Vuolo for their comments, feedback, and advice at various stages during the research process. This work also benefited greatly from feedback at the War and Society Workshop at Northwestern University and the Koç University College of Administrative Sciences and Economics colloquium. Any errors remain the sole responsibility of the authors. Please direct correspondence to Eric Schoon, Department of Sociology, 238 Townshend Hall, The Ohio State University, 1885 Neil Avenue Mall, Columbus, OH 43210-1222. E-mail: Schoon.1@osu.edu.

Citation: Schoon, Eric W., and Scott W. Duxbury. 2019. “Robust Discourse and the Politics of Legitimacy: Framing International Intervention in the Syrian Civil War, 2011–2016.” Sociological Science 6: 635-660.
Received: September 16, 2019
Accepted: October 16, 2019
Editors: Jesper Sørensen, Sarah Soule
DOI: 10.15195/v6.a24

Linking Self-Employment Before and After Migration: Migrant Selection and Human Capital

By Parker Webservices on November 20, 2019 in Articles

Andrey Tibajev

Sociological Science, November 20, 2019
10.15195/v6.a23

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In linking self-employment before and after migration, the often-cited home-country self-employment hypothesis states that immigrants who come from countries with large self-employment sectors are themselves more likely to have been self-employed and hence have a higher propensity for self-employment in their destination country. Using Swedish data, this study shows that the first part of the hypothesis, that origin-country average rates of self-employment can be used to approximate individual experience, is false; but the second part, the connection between self-employment before and after migration, is true if the measurement is done on the individual level. Migrants who have been self-employed before migration accumulate entrepreneurial human capital, making future self-employment a more desirable labor market alternative vis-à-vis wage employment. But because of migrant selection, this association cannot be captured by aggregate measures, and this is the reason why the home-country self-employment hypothesis, although intuitive, has underperformed in previous empirical tests.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Andrey Tibajev: Institute for Research on Migration, Ethnicity and Society, Linköping University
E-mail: andti116@student.liu.se

Acknowledgements: I am grateful for insightful comments from Moa Bursell, Martin Hällsten, Karin Krifors, Olav Nygård, Ognjen Obucina and Zoran Slavnic as well as the conference participants of the European Consortium for Sociological Research Annual Conference in Paris and International Migration, Integration, and Social Cohesion Annual Conference in Barcelona.

Citation: Tibajev, Andrey. 2019. “Linking Self-Employment Before and After Migration: Migrant Selection and Human Capital.” Sociological Science 6: 609-634.
Received: October 7, 2019
Accepted: October 16, 2019
Editors: Jesper Sørensen, Olav Sorenson
DOI: 10.15195/v6.a23

Individual and Social Genomic Contributions to Educational and Neighborhood Attainments: Geography, Selection, and Stratification in the United States

By Parker Webservices on November 13, 2019 in Articles

Thomas Laidley, Justin Vinneau, Jason D. Boardman

Sociological Science, November 13, 2019
10.15195/v6.a22

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Research on neighborhood effects draws suggestive links between local spatial environments and a range of social, economic, and public health outcomes. Here, we consider the potential role of genetics in the geography of social stratification in the United States using genomic data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health. We find that those with genotypes related to higher educational attainment sort into neighborhoods that are better educated and have higher population densities, both descriptively and using formal school and sibling fixed-effects models. We identify four mechanisms through which this geographic sorting on genetic endowment can magnify social stratification: assortative mating, social-genetic effects, gene-by-environment interactions, and gene–by–social-genetic interactions. We examine the presence of the latter three in our data, finding provisional yet suggestive evidence for social-genetic effects that putatively amount to about one-third of the influence of one’s own genomic profile. We find no evidence, however, for the presence of interactions between environments and individual genetic background. Collectively, these findings highlight the potential for geographic sorting on genotype to emerge both as a key methodological concern in population genetics and social science research and also a potentially overlooked dimension of social stratification worthy of future study.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Thomas Laidley: Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado Boulder
E-mail: thla0691@colorado.edu

Justin Vinneau: Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado Boulder
E-mail: justin.vinneau@colorado.edu

Jason D. Boardman: Institute of Behavioral Science, University of Colorado Boulder
E-mail: boardman@colorado.edu

Acknowledgements: This research uses data from The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), a program project directed by Kathleen Mullan Harris and designed by J. Richard Udry, Peter S. Bearman, and Kathleen Mullan Harris at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and funded by grant P01-HD31921 from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, with cooperative funding from 23 other federal agencies and foundations. Information on how to obtain the Add Health data files is available on the Add Health website (http://www.cpc.unc.edu/addhealth). Laidley and Vinneau acknowledge generous support from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) grant 5T32DA017637. This work has also benefited from research, administrative, and computing support provided by the University of Colorado Population Center (CUPC Project 2P2CHD066613-06) funded by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. We thank the editors for their feedback and guidance in preparing the manuscript as well as our colleagues at the Institute of Behavioral Science (IBS) and Institute for Behavioral Genetics (IBG) at the University of Colorado Boulder, who provided early feedback. Any remaining errors are ours alone. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily reflect the official views of the CUPC, NIH, IBS, IBG, or University of Colorado Boulder.

Citation: Laidley, Thomas, Justin Vinneau, and Jason D. Boardman. 2019. “Individual and Social Genomic Contributions to Educational and Neighborhood Attainments: Geography, Selection, and Stratification in the United States.” Sociological Science 6:580-608.
Received: September 16, 2019
Accepted: October 16, 2019
Editors: Jesper Sørensen, Gabriel Rossman
DOI: 10.15195/v6.a22

The Mere Mention of Asians in Affirmative Action

By Parker Webservices on September 26, 2019 in Articles

Jennifer Lee, Van C. Tran

Sociological Science, September 26, 2019
10.15195/v6.a21

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Presumed competent, U.S. Asians evince exceptional educational outcomes but lack the cultural pedigree of elite whites that safeguard them from bias in the labor market. In spite of their nonwhite minority status, Asians also lack the legacy of disadvantage of blacks that make them eligible beneficiaries of affirmative action. Their labor market disadvantage coupled with their exclusion from affirmative action programs place Asians in a unique bind: do they support policies that give preferences to blacks but exclude them? Given their self- and group interests, this bind should make Asians unlikely to do so. We assess whether this is the case by comparing their attitudes to those of whites, blacks, and Hispanics. Drawing on a novel three-way framing experiment embedded in the 2016 National Asian American Survey, we document how the “mere mention of Asians” in affirmative action frames affects support for the preferential hiring and promotion of blacks. Support shifts in different ways among all groups depending on the mere mention of Asians as either victims of affirmative action alongside whites or as victims of discrimination alongside blacks. Moreover, among Asians, support for affirmative action differs significantly by immigrant generation: first-generation Asians express the weakest support.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Jennifer Lee: Department of Sociology, Columbia University
E-mail: lee.jennifer@columbia.edu

Van C. Tran: Department of Sociology, The Graduate Center, CUNY
E-mail: vtran@gc.cuny.edu

Acknowledgements: Direct all correspondence to Jennifer Lee, Department of Sociology, Columbia University. E-mail: lee.jennifer@columbia.edu. This research was supported by grants from the National Science Foundation (1558986) and the Russell Sage Foundation (93-17-07). For comments and suggestions, we thank Maria Abascal, Aixa Cintrón-Vélez, Thomas DiPrete, Florencia Torche, Andreas Wimmer, and the editors of Sociological Science.

Citation: Lee, Jennifer, and Van C. Tran. 2019. “The Mere Mention of Asians in Affirmative Action.” Sociological Science 6: 551-579.
Received: July 15, 2019
Accepted: September 2, 2019
Editors: Jesper Sørensen, Kim Weeden
DOI: 10.15195/v6.a21

A Large-Scale Test of Gender Bias in the Media

By Parker Webservices on September 3, 2019 in Articles

Eran Shor, Arnout van de Rijt, Babak Fotouhi

Sociological Science, September 3, 2019
10.15195/v6.a20

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A large body of studies demonstrates that women continue to receive less media coverage than men do. Some attribute this difference to gender bias in media reporting—a systematic inclination toward male subjects. We propose that in order to establish the presence of media bias, one has to demonstrate that the news coverage of men is disproportional even after accounting for occupational inequalities and differences in public interest. We examine the coverage of more than 20,000 successful women and men from various social and occupational domains in more than 2,000 news sources as well as web searches for these individuals as a behavioral measure of interest. We find that when compared with similar-aged men from the same occupational strata, women enjoy greater public interest yet receive less media coverage.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Eran Shor: Department of Sociology, McGill University
E-mail: eran.shor@mcgill.ca

Arnout van de Rijt: Social and Behavioural Sciences, Utrecht University
E-mail: arnoutvanderijt@gmail.com

Babak Fotouhi: Program for Evolutionary Dynamics, Harvard University
E-mail: babak_fotouhi@fas.harvard.edu

Citation: Shor, Eran, Arnout van de Rijt, and Babak Fotouhi. 2019. “A Large-Scale Test of Gender Bias in the Media.” Sociological Science 6: 526-550.
Received: June 6, 2019
Accepted: June 13, 2019
Editors: Jesper Sørensen, Olav Sorenson
DOI: 10.15195/v6.a20

Building Inequality: Housing Segregation and Income Segregation

By Parker Webservices on August 7, 2019 in Articles

Ann Owens

Sociological Science, August 7, 2019
10.15195/v6.a19

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This article foregrounds housing in the study of residential segregation. The spatial configuration of housing determines the housing opportunities in each neighborhood, the backdrop against which households’ resources, preferences, and constraints play out. I use census and American Community Survey data to provide the first evidence of the extent of housing segregation by type and by cost at multiple geographic scales in large metropolitan areas in the United States from 1990 to 2014. Segregation between single- and multifamily homes and renter- and owner-occupied homes increased in most metropolitan areas, whereas segregation by cost declined. Housing segregation varies among metropolitan areas, across geographic scales, and over time, with consequences for income segregation. Income segregation is markedly higher when and where housing segregation is greater. As long as housing opportunities remain segregated, residential segregation will change little, with urgent implications for urban and housing policy makers.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Ann Owens: Department of Sociology, University of Southern California
E-mail: annowens@usc.edu

Acknowledgements: This research was supported by a USC Lusk Center for Real Estate faculty research grant. Comments and suggestions from the 2019 Population Association of America Annual Meeting and from reviewers improved this article. All conclusions and errors are attributable to the author.

Citation: Owens, Ann. 2019. “Building Inequality: Housing Segregation and Income Segregation.” Sociological Science 6: 497-525.
Received: May 29, 2019
Accepted: June 23, 2019
Editors: Jesper Sørensen, Kim Weeden
DOI: 10.15195/v6.a19

Do Some Countries Discriminate More than Others? Evidence from 97 Field Experiments of Racial Discrimination in Hiring

By Parker Webservices on June 17, 2019 in Articles

Lincoln Quillian, Anthony Heath, Devah Pager, Arnfinn H. Midtbøen, Fenella Fleischmann, Ole Hexel

Sociological Science, June 17, 2019
10.15195/v6.a18

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Comparing levels of discrimination across countries can provide a window into large-scale social and political factors often described as the root of discrimination. Because of difficulties in measurement, however, little is established about variation in hiring discrimination across countries. We address this gap through a formal meta-analysis of 97 field experiments of discrimination incorporating more than 200,000 job applications in nine countries in Europe and North America. We find significant discrimination against nonwhite natives in all countries in our analysis; discrimination against white immigrants is present but low. However, discrimination rates vary strongly by country: In high-discrimination countries, white natives receive nearly twice the callbacks of nonwhites; in low-discrimination countries, white natives receive about 25 percent more. France has the highest discrimination rates, followed by Sweden. We find smaller differences among Great Britain, Canada, Belgium, the Netherlands, Norway, the United States, and Germany. These findings challenge several conventional macro-level theories of discrimination.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Lincoln Quillian: Department of Sociology, Northwestern University
E-mail: l-quillian@northwestern.edu

Anthony Heath: Centre for Social Investigation, Nuffield College
E-mail: anthony.heath@nuffield.ox.ac.uk

Devah Pager: Deceased, formerly Department of Sociology, Harvard University

Arnfinn H. Midtbøen: Institute for Social Research, Oslo, Norway
E-mail: a.h.midtboen@samfunnsforskning.no

Fenella Fleischmann: Interdisciplinary Social Science, Utrecht University
E-mail: F.Fleischmann@uu.nl

Ole Hexel: Department of Sociology, Northwestern University, and Observatoire Sociologique du Changement, Sciences Po, Paris, France
E-mail: ole.hexel@u.northwestern.edu

Acknowledgements: We have received financial support for this project from the Russell Sage Foundation and the Institute for Policy Research at Northwestern University. We thank Larry Hedges for methodological advice. We dedicate this article to Devah Pager, who learned a little from us and taught us much more.