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The Census Bureau set off reports of a “multiracial boom” when it announced that, according to the 2020 census, multiracial people accounted for 10.2 percent of the U.S. population. Only the year before, the bureau’s American Community Survey had estimated their share as 3.4 percent. We provide evidence that the multiracial boom was largely a statistical illusion resulting from methodological changes that confounded ancestry with identity and mistakenly equated national origin with race. Under a new algorithm, respondents were auto-recoded as multiracial if, after marking a single race, they listed an “origin” that the algorithm did not recognize as falling within that race. However, origins and identity are not the same; confounding the two did not improve racial statistics. The fictitious multiracial boom highlights the power of official statistics in framing public and social-science understanding and the need to keep ancestry and identity distinct in both theory and empirical practice.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Paul Starr: Sociology Department, Princeton University
E-mail: starr@princeton.edu

Christina Pao: Sociology Department, Princeton University
E-mail: christina.pao@princeton.edu

Acknowledgements: Presentations by Ricardo Lowe and colleagues helped inform the empirical strategy in our article. We also thank participants in the May 2024 Conference of the American Association for Public Opinion Research for their responses to our research.

Reproducibility Package: R code for replication is available on the Open Science Framework (OSF), https://osf.io/8ebup/?view_only=67a953b996684d128c9384d4841ed1c5. Data are available from IPUMS USA (Ruggles et al. 2024): https://usa.ipums.org/usa/index.shtml

Citation: Starr, Paul, and Christina Pao. 2024. “The Multiracial Complication: The 2020 Census and the Fictitious Multiracial Boom.” Sociological Science 11: 1107-1123.
Received: September 17, 2024
Accepted: October 21, 2024
Editors: Ari Adut, Michael Rosenfeld
DOI: 10.15195/v11.a40

Opportunities for Faculty Tenure at Globally Ranked Universities: Cross-National Differences by Gender, Fields, and Tenure Status

By Parker Webservices on November 26, 2024 in Articles

Mana Nakagawa, Christine Min Wotipka, Elizabeth Buckner

Sociological Science November 12, 2024
10.15195/v11.a39

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Drawing on a unique data set of almost 12,000 faculty members from 52 globally ranked universities in four fields (sociology, biology, history, and engineering), this study describes and explains gender differences in tenure among faculty across 13 countries. In our sample, women comprise roughly one-third of all faculty and only 23 percent of tenured faculty, with significant variation across fields and countries. Findings from a series of multilevel regression analyses suggest support for a gender filter argument: women are less likely to be tenured overall and in every field. Opportunities for tenure also matter. In countries with very low- and high-tenure rates, women are much less likely to be tenured relative to men than in countries with pathways both into and upward in academia.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Mana Nakagawa: Global DEI & People Development, Meta
E-mail: mananakagawa@alumni.stanford.edu

Christine Min Wotipka: Graduate School of Education, Stanford University
E-mail: cwotipka@stanford.edu

Elizabeth Buckner: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto
E-mail: elizabeth.buckner@utoronto.ca

Acknowledgements: We wish to thank Francisco O. Ramirez, JohnW. Meyer, Woody Powell, Eric Bettinger, Shelley Correll, Evan Schofer, Lisa Yiu, and the members of the Stanford Comparative Workshop and the Clayman Institute for Gender Research at Stanford University for their helpful feedback and guidance. We appreciate the research and editorial assistance provided by Nozomi Nakajima, Cassandra Hsinyu Lin, Isabela Freire Rietmeijer, and Juetzinia Kazmer-Murillo. An earlier version of this article was presented at the Annual Meeting of the Comparative and International Education Society in 2019. The first author received funding from the Institute of Education Sciences through predoctoral training grant #R305B090016 and the Clayman Institute for Gender Research Graduate Dissertation Fellowship.

Reproducibility Package: A replication package with all original data and codes is available at https://doi.org/10.25740/yj064dj4349.

Citation: Nakagawa, Mana, Christine Min Wotipka, and Elizabeth Buckner. 2024. “Opportunities for Faculty Tenure at Globally Ranked Universities: Cross-National Differences by Gender, Fields, and Tenure Status.” Sociological Science 11: 1084-1106.
Received: July 26, 2024
Accepted: October 21, 2024
Editors: Ari Adut, Nan Dirk de Graaf
DOI: 10.15195/v11.a39

Some Birds Have Mixed Feathers: Bringing the Multiracial Population into the Study of Race Homophily

By Parker Webservices on November 12, 2024 in Articles

David R. Schaefer, Sara I. Villalta, Victoria Vezaldenos, Adriana J. Umaña-Taylor

Sociological Science November 12, 2024
10.15195/v11.a38

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Research on race homophily in the United States has yet to meaningfully include the growing multiracial population. The present study confronts this challenge by drawing upon recent conceptualizations of race as a multidimensional construct. In aligning this insight with current understandings of homophily, we identify and address several open questions about the origins of race homophily—namely regarding the possibility of peer influence on racial identity and network selection based on multiple facets of race. Data are from 3,036 youth in two large U.S. high schools with sizable proportions of mixed-race students. Using a stochastic actor-oriented model, we find that students choose friends based on similarity across multiple dimensions of racial identity and that peer influence operates to reinforce multiracial youths’ racial self-classification rather than to induce change. This points to a system where race homophily arises through multiple selection mechanisms and is reinforced by pressure toward conformity.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

David R. Schaefer: Department of Sociology, University of California, Irvine
E-mail: drschaef@uci.edu

Sara I. Villalta: Department of Sociology, Loyola Marymount University
E-mail: sara.villalta@lmu.edu

Victoria Vezaldenos: Combined Program in Education and Psychology, University of Michigan
E-mail: toriavez@umich.edu

Adriana J. Umaña-Taylor: Graduate School of Education, Harvard University
E-mail: adriana_umana-taylor@gse.harvard.edu

Acknowledgements: This research was supported by grants from the National Science Foundation (SES No. 1918162, PI: Schaefer; BCS No. 1625277, PI: Umaña-Taylor). We express our appreciation to Jessica Collett, Deja Goodwin, Andrew Penner, and Aliya Saperstein for helpful comments on an earlier draft.

Reproducibility Package: A replication package is available at: https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/VOK1UI.

Citation: Schaefer, R. David, Sara I. Villalta, Victoria Vezaldenos, and Adriana J. Umaña-Taylor. 2024. “Some Birds Have Mixed Feathers: Bringing the Multiracial Population into the Study of Race Homophily.” Sociological Science 11: 1046-1083.
Received: April 30, 2024
Accepted: August 28, 2024
Editors: Ari Adut, Andreas Wimmer
DOI: 10.15195/v11.a38

Gender Segregation and Decision-Making in Undergraduate Course-Taking

By Parker Webservices on November 8, 2024 in Articles

Marissa E. Thompson, Tobias Dalberg, Elizabeth E. Bruch

Sociological Science November 8, 2024
10.15195/v11.a37

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Gender segregation across fields of study is a persistent problem in higher education. Although a large body of literature has illustrated both gendered patterns in major choice as well as overall gender segregation across academic majors, comparatively less attention has been paid to an important building block for gender inequality: college courses. In this study, we examine the process of how students choose courses and the implications for gender segregation. Drawing on a unique data set that includes individual-level consideration and choice data from an entire cohort of university students choosing their first college courses, we examine both gender segregation at the college course level as well as the extent to which individual decision-making processes are themselves gendered. We find that course gender composition serves as a screener at the consideration stage, which suggests that gender segregation in decision-making emerges at the outset of the choice process. Once a subset of considered options has been established, final choices are much less influenced by course gender compositions. Furthermore, we find that courses are much more gender-segregated, on average, than majors themselves, illustrating that segregation is occurring at a more microlevel than commonly studied.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Marissa E. Thompson: Department of Sociology, Columbia University
E-mail: marissa.thompson@columbia.edu

Tobias Dalberg: Department of Education, Uppsala University
E-mail: tobias.dalberg@edu.uu.se

Elizabeth E. Bruch: Department of Sociology, University of Michigan and the Santa Fe Institute
E-mail: ebruch@umich.edu

Acknowledgements: This research was supported in part by the Institute of Education Sciences through grants R305B140009 (to Stanford University) and R305B170015 (to the University of Michigan). Results, information, and opinions solely represent the analysis, information, and opinions of the authors and are not endorsed by, or reflect the views or positions of, the grantors. In addition, we would like to thank Tom DiPrete, Sonia Giebel, Monique Harrison, Kaylee Matheny, Michelle Niemann, Mitchell Stevens, and members of the Curricular Structure & Choice Lab (at the University of Michigan) and the Pathways Network for generous feedback and comments on earlier versions of this project. We would also like to acknowledge and thank Sorathan (Tum) Chaturapruek for his work in developing the course selection tool used in this study and Andreas Paepcke for his generous help with procuring and structuring the data.

Reproducibility Package: Code for this study is available through the Open Science Framework: https://osf.io/ya3t8/. Due to the fact that the data includes potentially identifiable information, as well as to protect the anonymous case institution and students involved, the underlying data and the identity of the case university cannot be made public. Author access to the data was facilitated through the Pathways Network, which has an institutional relationship and data use agreement for access to the data. Questions about data access and requirements should be directed to Pathways Director, Professor Mitchell Stevens (stevens4@stanford.edu) at the Stanford University Graduate School of Education. Access to the data is at the discretion of the anonymous case university on a case-by-case basis, and data may not be available to external researchers. For more details on the specific course search platform leveraged in this study, see Chaturapruek et al. (2021).

Citation: Thompson, E. Marissa, Tobias Dalberg, Elizabeth E. Bruch. 2024. “Gender Segregation and Decision-Making in Undergraduate Course-Taking.” Sociological Science 11: 1017-1045.
Received: August 10, 2024
Accepted: October 6, 2024
Editors: Ari Adut, Maria Abascal
DOI: 10.15195/v11.a37

Social Status and the Moral Acceptance of Artificial Intelligence

By Parker Webservices on October 29, 2024 in Articles

Patrick Schenk, Vanessa A. Müller, Luca Keiser

Sociological Science October 29, 2024
10.15195/v11.a36

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The morality of artificial intelligence (AI) has become a contentious topic in academic and public debates. We argue that AI’s moral acceptance depends not only on its ability to accomplish a task in line with moral norms but also on the social status attributed to AI. Agent type (AI vs. computer program vs. human), gender, and organizational membership impact moral permissibility. In a factorial survey experiment, 578 participants rated the moral acceptability of agents performing a task (e.g., cancer diagnostics). We find that using AI is judged less morally acceptable than employing human agents. AI used in high-status organizations is judged more morally acceptable than in low-status organizations. No differences were found between computer programs and AI. Neither anthropomorphic nor gender framing had an effect. Thus, human agents in high-status organizations receive a moral surplus purely based on their structural position in a cultural status hierarchy regardless of their actual performance.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Patrick Schenk: Department of Sociology, University of Lucerne
E-mail: patrick.schenk@unilu.ch

Vanessa A. Müller: Department of Sociology, University of Lucerne
E-mail: vanessa.mueller2@unilu.ch

Luca Keiser: gfs.bern
E-mail: luca.keiser@gfsbern.ch

Acknowledgements: We thank Gabriel Abend, Michael Sauder, the editor of Sociological Science, and an anonymous reviewer for their valuable comments. Earlier versions of this article were presented at the Congress of the Academy of Sociology in Bern, Switzerland, and the Conference of the European Sociological Association in Porto, Portugal.

Funding: This study was funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation (grant number 100017_200750/1).

Reproducibility Package: A reproduction package with data, codebook, and statistical code is available through the following link: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13850548.

Citation: Schenk, Patrick, Vanessa A. Müller, Luca Keiser. 2024. “Social Status and the Moral Acceptance of Artificial Intelligence.” Sociological Science 11: 989-1016.
Received: August 20, 2024
Accepted: September 29, 2024
Editors: Ari Adut, Stephen Vaisey
DOI: 10.15195/v11.a36

Hunkering Down or Catching Up? No Long-Term Effect of Ethnic Minority Share on Neighborhood Contacts

By Parker Webservices on October 18, 2024 in Articles

Stephan Dochow-Sondershaus

Sociological Science October 18, 2024
10.15195/v11.a35

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This study reexamines the relationship between the coexistence of distinct ethno-cultural groups and social connectedness. Although previous research suggests a negative association between neighborhood-level ethnic diversity or ethnic minority shares and individual integration, alternative theoretical perspectives propose that integration can occur equally well in neighborhoods with distinct ethnic groups but may require more time. Moreover, the causal nature of the observed negative relationship is unclear due to potential confounding biases related to neighborhood selection. To address these issues, this study presents a framework for estimating the longitudinal effects of neighborhood ethnic composition on social ties with neighbors. The objective is to estimate the differences in neighborly contacts between individuals in low- and high-minority share neighborhoods, under a counterfactual scenario where all households stay in their neighborhood for the same period. The findings challenge previous research by showing that the ethnic composition does not impact the quality of neighborly contacts. In addition, residing in a neighborhood for five years significantly enhances social connectivity, regardless of ethnic composition. These results suggest that reduced cohesion in areas with higher minority presence may be due to other factors such as socioeconomic disadvantage and housing instability.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Stephan Dochow-Sondershaus: Department of Sociology, University of Copenhagen
E-mail: stdo@soc.ku.dk

Acknowledgements: I would like to express my gratitude to Michael Windzio, Merlin Schaeffer, Celine Teney, and Jan Goebel for their invaluable support and feedback on this article. I am also thankful to the Bremen International Graduate School of Social Sciences for providing the necessary resources to complete this work. In addition, I appreciate the valuable feedback from participants at the 2021 Conference of the German Academy of Sociology, the 2022 German Socio-Economic Panel User Conference, and the 2024 Conference of the Nordic Sociological Association. Finally, I am grateful to Philipp Kaminsky, Christine Kurka, and Michaela Engelmann at the DIW in Berlin for providing a supportive work environment and for their uplifting spirit.

Reproducibility Package: Stata and R code for replication is available on the author’s Open Science Framework page (https://doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/RCFN4). The datasets were made available by the German Socio-Economic Panel (SOEP) Study at the German Institute for Economic Research (DIW) in Berlin. The SOEP data can be requested after signing a data assignment contract (https://www.diw.de/en/diw_01.c.601584.en/data_access.html). For more information, visit https://doi.org/10.5684/soep.core.v36eu. The Microm-SOEP dataset for neighborhood data is provided by and accessible to researchers at the German Institute for Economic Research (DIW) in Berlin.

Citation: Dochow-Sondershaus, Stephan. 2024. “Hunkering Down or Catching Up? No Long-Term Effect of Ethnic Minority Share on Neighborhood Contacts.” Sociological Science 11: 965-988.
Received: April 10, 2024
Accepted: September 21, 2024
Editors: Arnout van de Rijt, Maria Abascal
DOI: 10.15195/v11.a35

The Surprising Decline of Workplace Sexual Harassment Incidence in the U.S. Federal Workforce

By Parker Webservices on October 7, 2024 in Articles

Michael J. Rosenfeld

Sociological Science October 7, 2024
10.15195/v11.a34

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U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board (USMSPB) surveys document a decline of more than 50 percent between 1987 and 2016 in the percentage of women working for the federal government who have been sexually harassed (narrowly or broadly defined) in the prior two years. This decline has been underappreciated due to the infrequency of USMSPB surveys and the delayed release of the USMSPB report based on the 2016 survey. The decline in workplace sexual harassment of women has taken place across all federal agencies and at all workplace gender balances. While, in 1987, there was a strong positive correlation between male predominance in the workplace and women’s report of sexual harassment, this association was greatly diminished by 2016. The formerly substantial gender divide in attitudes toward sexual harassment was also mostly diminished by 2016. By extrapolating the USMSPB surveys of federal workers to the entire U.S. workforce, I estimate that 4.8 million U.S. women were harassed at work in 2016 (using a narrow definition of harassment) and 7.6 million U.S. women were harassed at work in 1987 when the female workforce was substantially smaller. More than 700 women were sexually harassed at work in the United States in 2016 for every sexual harassment complaint filed with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. The observed decline in sexual harassment has implications for theories about law and social change.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Michael J. Rosenfeld: Stanford University
E-mail: mrosenfe@stanford.edu

Acknowledgements: The idea of this article started from discussions with research assistant Camilla Camargo about a research project comparing the history of coworker dating with workplace sexual harassment. Research assistant Jasleen Gosal excavated some obscure aspects of the history of federal government agencies training programs with respect to sexual harassment. Thanks to the staff at the Merit Systems Protection Board who answered many questions about surveys and data. The following people gave feedback on earlier drafts of the article: Hannah Tessler, Alisa Feldman, Michaela Simmons, Amy Hontalas, Kimberly Higuera, Justine Tinkler, and the Stanford Graduate Family Workshop. A previous version of these results was presented at the Population Association of America Conference in 2024.

Funding: None.

Reproducibility Package: All original data, codes, and analysis are available at OpenICPSR, https://doi.org/10.3886/E209051V1.

Citation: Rosenfeld, J. Michael. 2024. “The Surprising Decline of Workplace Sexual Harassment Incidence in the U.S. Federal Workforce.” Sociological Science 11: 934-964.
Received: July 24, 2024
Accepted: September 13, 2024
Editors: Ari Adut, Kristen Schilt
DOI: 10.15195/v11.a34

Life-Course Transitions and Political Orientations

By Parker Webservices on September 27, 2024 in Articles

Turgut Keskintürk

Sociological Science September 27, 2024
10.15195/v11.a33

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Do life-course transitions in adulthood shape political orientations? One framework suggests that life events expose people to new information, allowing actors to assess their political beliefs and preferences in response to these social experiences. An alternative framework suggests that the link between one’s life-course position and personal politics may be ambiguous, and early experiences should be more informative for political orientations. In this article, I use four household surveys across three countries and 40 items on political beliefs and preferences to test whether lifecourse transitions change one’s political orientations. In doing this, I employ difference-in-differences models to identify the effects of six life transitions across family and work domains on a wide variety of propositional survey items. I find that life-course transitions have no substantive influence on political orientations, and the general findings are not sensitive to differences in political interest or the age at which individuals experience these life events.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Turgut Keskintürk: Department of Sociology, Duke University
E-mail: turgut.keskinturk@duke.edu

Acknowledgements: I thank Stephen Vaisey, Craig Rawlings, and Christopher Wildeman for their extensive feedback on different versions of this manuscript, and Andrés Castro Araújo, Kevin Kiley, and the participants of the Worldview Lab at the Kenan Institute for Ethics at Duke University for their thoughtful comments on the project.

Reproducibility Package: The code to reproduce the full set of analyses and instructions on how to access the household surveys are provided at https://osf.io/hu3yj/.

Citation: Keskintürk, Turgut 2024. “Life-Course Transitions and Political Orientations” Sociological Science 11: 907-933.
Received: July 3, 2024
Accepted: September 10, 2024
Editors: Arnout van de Rijt, Jeremy Freese
DOI: 10.15195/v11.a33

Factorial Survey Experiments to Predict Real-World Behavior: A Cautionary Tale from Hiring Studies

By Parker Webservices on September 24, 2024 in Articles

Andrea G. Forster, Martin Neugebauer

Sociological Science September 24, 2024
10.15195/v11.a32

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Factorial surveys (FSs) are increasingly used to predict real-world decisions. However, there is a paucity of research assessing whether these predictions are valid and, if so, under what conditions. In this preregistered study, we sent out N = 3,002 applications to job vacancies in Germany and measured real-world responses. Eight weeks later, we presented nearly identical applicant profiles to the same employers as a part of an FS. To explore the conditions under which FSs provide valid behavioral predictions, we varied the topic sensitivity and tested whether behavioral predictions were more successful after filtering out respondents who gave socially desirable answers or did not exert sufficient effort when answering FS vignettes. Across conditions, the FS results did not correspond well with the real-world benchmark. We conclude that researchers must exercise caution when using FSs to study (hiring) behavior.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Andrea G. Forster: Utrecht University, Heidelberglaan 8, 3584 CS Utrecht, The Netherlands
E-mail: a.g.forster@uu.nl

Martin Neugebauer: Karlsruhe University of Education, Bismarckstr. 10, 76133 Karlsruhe, Germany
E-mail: martin.neugebauer@ph-karlsruhe.de

Acknowledgements: Both authors contributed equally to this study. We would like to thank Lukas Zielinski, Stefan Gunzelmann, Tim Skroblien, Pablo Neitzsch, and Franz Geiger for their help with the design of the experiments and the collection of the data. Furthermore, we would like to thank Katrin Auspurg, Annabell Daniel, Tamara Gutfleisch, Knut Petzold, and Katharina Stückradt as well as 16 professional experts (recruiters and job councelors) for their feedback on our experimental design and materials. Finally, we would like to thank the participants of ECSR 2022, ACES 2022, DGS 2022, the ISOL paper seminar, the Research Colloquium Sociology (University of Bern), and the Research Colloquium Analytical Sociology (LMU Munich) for their feedback on earlier versions of this article. This research was funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education grant number 16PX21011.

Reproducibility Package: The code and data needed to reproduce the analyses are available at the Open Science Framework: https://osf.io/x2tcp/.

Citation: Forster, G. Andrea and Martin Neugebauer. 2024. “Factorial Survey Experiments to Predict Real-World Behavior: A Cautionary Tale from Hiring Studies.” Sociological Science 11: 886-906.
Received: April 26, 2024
Accepted: August 23, 2024
Editors: Arnout van de Rijt, Stephen Vaisey
DOI: 10.15195/v11.a32

Decomposing Heterogeneity in Inequality of Educational Opportunities: Family Income and Academic Performance in Brazilian Higher Education

By Parker Webservices on September 10, 2024 in Articles

Adriano S. Senkevics, Rogério J. Barbosa, Flavio Carvalhaes, Carlos A. Costa Ribeiro

Sociological Science September 10, 2024
10.15195/v11.a31

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Access to higher education depends on the interaction between social origins and academic performance: background resources boost academic skills; but even when controlling for performance, privileged students are more likely to make ambitious choices and further transitions. Recent literature has shown that inequality in educational choices is heterogeneous across countries. However, it is still not well understood how different institutional designs within countries may affect the workings of those effects and how they can strengthen or weaken the inequality of educational opportunities. Using high-quality register data from the Brazilian higher education system, our work contributes to this understanding by investigating how SES and performance interact and drive students’ choice between three different tracks: not entering higher education, entering the private system, or entering the public system. We developed a strategy to encompass multinomial choices and decompose the inequalities into primary and secondary effects. Using the Shapley Value decomposition strategy, we correct an intrinsic asymmetry that biased previous results. Our findings suggest affluent students enjoy dual advantages: high exam performance amplifies access to public universities (indirect effect) and family resources offset subpar performance, ensuring private university access (direct effect). We found no signs of multiplicative advantages.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Adriano S. Senkevics: National Institute for Educational Studies and Research, Ministry of Education of Brazil
E-mail: adriano.senkevics@alumni.usp.br

Rogério J. Barbosa: Institute of Social and Political Studies, State University of Rio de Janeiro
E-mail: rogerio.barbosa@iesp.uerj.br

Flavio Carvalhaes: Department of Sociology, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro
E-mail: flaviocarvalhaes@gmail.com

Carlos A. Costa Ribeiro: Institute of Social and Political Studies, State University of Rio de Janeiro
E-mail: carloscr@iesp.uerj.br

Acknowledgements: We extend our gratitude to the editors and reviewers for their insightful suggestions. We are thankful to Marcelo Medeiros, Thomas DiPrete, and Scott Davies, as well as the School of International and Public Affairs and the Institute of Latin American Studies at Columbia University and the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education at the University of Toronto for their hospitality during the authors’ visit. Special thanks go to the National Institute for Educational Studies and Research (INEP) for granting access to the restricted microdata. We are also appreciative of the financial support provided by Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro – FAPERJ (grants E-26/201.343/2021 and 010.002639/2019); Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico – CNPq (grant 400786/2016-8); Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior – CAPES (grant 88887.368106/2019-00); and Pro-Ciência from the State University of Rio de Janeiro – UERJ.